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African American Military History on the National Mall

February 27, 2024Posted in UncategorizedTagged African American Musuem, African Americans, Bucks of America, Buffalo Soldiers, Colin Powell, Double V Campaign, Harlem Hellfighters, history, National Mall, National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institute, travel, Washington DC, Washington DC travelLeave a comment

From Bunker Hill in 1775 to Bagdad in 2005, African Americans have served in the American military throughout our history. Their experiences are told as part of the larger African American saga at the Smithsonian’s newest museum, the National Museum of African American History and Culture.

Decades in the making, this museum opened in 2016 and attendance has now grown to over 1.6 million annual visitors. With over 3,500 artifacts on display, the museum’s broad expanse of exhibits reflect critical aspects of African American life such as slavery, civil rights, sports, music and military service.

A “soup bowl” style helmet worn during World War I. Soldiers of the US 369th Infantry Regiment, the Harlem Hellfighters, are pictured behind the helmet.

Situated on the National Mall, the exterior features a distinctive bronze colored filigree, a tribute to the timeless work of African American metal artisans. It sets this structure apart from the neoclassical and modernist designs of the neighboring government buildings.

The bright, spacious lobby, known as Heritage Hall, features diverse artwork with copper metallic and gray walls, complimenting the museum’s unique exterior. From here, the visitor may choose their entryway into the African American experience presented in the museum. The escalator down leads to the History Galleries while upstairs are the Community and Culture Galleries, which reflect more contemporary times and themes.

Tracing African American military history will ultimately lead in both directions.

Begin the journey in the downstairs galleries, which present over 400 years of African American history, from the establishment of the African slave trade through the Civil Rights era. African American military service during America’s wars is presented chronologically as part of the larger narrative of African American life. The galleries and exhibits devoted to four major conflicts all convey the recurring theme of how time and again African Americans fought bravely in wars for freedoms they themselves did not possess.

A large gallery dedicated to the Revolutionary War explores how enslaved Blacks served on both sides, motivated by promises of freedom.

The flag of the Bucks of America, a Black paramilitary group founded in the Boston area. It is believed the group protected the property of Patriot merchants who had left Boston to fight in the Revolutionary War.

Historians estimate approximately 5,000 – 6,000 Blacks served in the Continental Army or in colonial militias. They were involved in every major Revolutionary War battle and most smaller engagements. Units such as the First Rhode Island Regiment, comprised mostly of Blacks, gained renown for their discipline and skills as soldiers. Additionally, experienced Black seamen were actively recruited by the Continental and Royal Navies and served in many different operational capacities.

The war’s conclusion in 1783 brought freedom for some Black soldiers and sailors, but many were returned to slavery, either in America or other portions of the British Empire.

The Civil War gallery focuses largely on the many contributions of the US Colored Troops to the Union war effort. While newly freed slaves could receive paid work from the Army as early as 1861, they could not serve as Army soldiers until January 1863.

A kepi cap worn by a soldier from the 4th Regiment Heavy Artillery, US Colored Troops

Ultimately, about 179,000 African Americans enlisted in the Army from both the North and South. They were organized into segregated infantry, cavalry and artillery regiments with white officers and designated as US Colored Troops. Initially, they were paid less than white soldiers and given menial jobs to perform. In time though they earned full pay and distinguished themselves in many battles. Sixteen African American soldiers would earn the Medal of Honor.

Unlike the Army, the Navy was integrated before the Civil War. About 20,000 African Americans served aboard U.S Navy ships during the Civil War alongside White sailors.

The exhibits devoted to World War I and II are notably smaller than the Revolutionary and Civil War galleries. They broadly describe the segregated service of African Americans during these wars and the hostile environment to which they often returned.

One of the highlights in the History Galleries is a beautifully restored Stearman Keydet training aircraft used by the Tuskegee Airmen. The two seat bi-plane was the primary pilot training aircraft for the US Armed Forces in the 1930’s and 1940’s. The accompanying display also includes an excellent five minute introductory video on the origins and accomplishments of the Tuskegee Airmen, which was established in 1941 to demonstrate that African Americans could perform the jobs required in the Army Air Forces. The Tuskegee Airmen included pilots, as well as navigators, flight engineers, bombardiers, mechanics and other essential support positions.

A PT-13D Stearman Kaydet training aircraft used to train Tuskegee Airmen

One of the most notable units comprised of Tuskegee Airmen was the 332nd Fighter Group. From their base in Italy, the 332nd escorted heavy bombers on raids into central Europe from May 1944 through April 1945. They flew more than 15,000 sorties, losing but 25 escorted bombers to enemy fire.

In the museum’s Community Gallery on the third floor is an exhibit entitled Double Victory: the African American Military Experience. The gallery takes its name from the Pittsburg Courier’s Double Victory campaign during World War II, which promoted America’s victory over the Axis Powers and an African American victory over discrimination at home.

This exhibit expands on the themes first introduced in the below-ground History Galleries. Here the emphasis goes beyond historical facts of African American military service to how that service changed through the years and its impact on the larger African American community.

A handkerchief with the emblem of the Pittsburgh Courier’s Double Victory campaign.

Also included are more artifacts, such as documents, weapons and equipment. These highlight what military service for African Americans entailed at the time, such as a seaman’s certificate issued in 1826 to a Black sailor named Robert Barnaby. Barnaby carried the certificate with him at all times to prove he was a sailor in the US Navy and avoid being seized as a runaway slave.

This exhibits introduces the accomplishments of some notable African American units such as the 54th Massachusetts, the Buffalo Soldiers, the Harlem Hellfighters, and the Red Ball Express, among others.

President Harry Truman officially ended segregation in the US Armed Forces in 1948, upon signing Executive Order 9981. Change came, but slowly. Racial tension continued in the following decades in parallel with the civil rights movement occurring across American society. However, the integration of the services opened new opportunities for African American service members.

A horse saddle used by B Troop , 9th US Cavalry Regiment (A Buffalo Soldiers Regiment)

The final part of the Double Victory exhibit portrays one of the most important of those opportunities, the long rise of African Americans to senior ranks within the military. Two hundred years after the Battle of Lexington and Concord, Daniel “Chappie” James, a fighter pilot and Tuskegee Airman became the first African American four star general in history.

The exhibit includes Colin Powell’s dress uniform from his tenure as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It denotes the pinnacle of that long rise and attests to what is now possible in the military.

Although they might not have always been treated fairly, military service has long been an important part of African American life. Today, African Americans comprise 17% of the ranks of soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines and continue a tradition begun over 200 years ago. Through that time, the unique relationship between African Americans and the American military was a rather complex picture. Curators have designed and assembled some revealing exhibits exploring the nuances of those complexities. It is an important collection and well worth seeing for anyone desiring a more complete picture of American military history.

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Route Recon

The Museum is located on the National Mall at Constitution Avenue, NW, between 14th and 15th Streets, Washington, D.C. The street address is 1400 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20560.

Click here for a map of all the Smithsonian Institute Museums around the National Mall.

The museum is open Tuesdays – Sundays from 10:00 AM until 5:30 PM. On Monday, the museum is open from 12 Noon until 5:30 PM.

Free timed-entry passes are required for entry.

Using public transportation is advised for those visiting the museum.

Metrorail – The closest Metro station is Federal Triangle, along the blue, orange, and silver lines.

Metrobus – Bus stops are located on Constitution Avenue. Visit the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority for more information.

Circulator Bus – The National Mall Circulator Loop bus provides easy access around the National Mall and convenient connections to other Circulator buses for visits to uptown sites.

Mess Call

If your schedule allows, plan for lunch or a snack at the Sweet Home Café, the museum’s restaurant. It features a variety of food items reflective of African American culinary traditions as well as many modern day favorites. The Sweet Home Café is open daily, from 11:00 AM to 3:00 PM with the exception of Mondays (12:00 Noon – 3:00 PM).

What’s Peace Got To Do With It?

December 31, 2023December 31, 2023Posted in Civil WarTagged Admiral David Porter, Capitol Grounds, Carrara Marble, Civil War, David Dixon Porter, David Porter, Franklin Simmons, history, military history, National Mall, Navy Monument, Peace Monument, tourism, travel, united-states, US Capitol, Washington DC, Washington DC travel1 Comment

In a city abundant with statues, monuments and memorials, a few stand out for their uniqueness. One of these sits to the northwest of the US Capitol in the middle of a traffic circle formed where Pennsylvania Avenue terminates at First Street, NW. It is one of three pieces of statuary, along with memorials to Ulysses S. Grant and James Garfield, that form a visual connection between the US Capitol Grounds and the National Mall.

Dedicated to the sailors and Marines who died during the Civil War, the statue is known as the Navy Monument or Peace Monument. Unlike its neighboring statues which feature American statesmen cast in bronze, the Peace Monument mixes a variety of classical figures arrayed around an upright bloc, all captured in Italian marble.

**The Peace Monument from the National Mall**

At the top of the 44 foot high monument are two robed figures facing the National Mall to the west. One is Grief, who buries her head in one hand, while resting her other on the shoulder of History, who stands bearing a pen and scroll inscribed with the words: They died that their country might live.

Midway down the monument, Victory holds her laurel high in her right hand, while a very young Mars (the god of war) and Neptune (the god of the sea) sit at her feet.

On the reverse side of the statue, the figure of Peace looks towards the US Capitol. At her feet are a collection of items symbolic of the benefits of peace. There is a cornucopia and a sickle representing agricultural bounty while a gear and a book represent industry and the pursuit of knowledge.

Four large marble spheres on their own bracket-shaped pedestals are found on the corners of the monument along with classical adornments, such as wreaths, scrolling and scallop shells. Below the monument, jets of water shoot into a giant basin. On the west side an inscription reads: In memory of the Officers, Seamen and Marines of the United States Navy who fell in defence [sic] of the Union and liberty of their country, 1861–1865.

While it looks as if it might have been designed by a committee, the statue was the idea of one man: US Navy Admiral David Porter.

Admiral Porter was the scion of a distinguished naval family. His father, Commodore David Porter, was a hero of the War of 1812 and his adopted brother was David Glasgow Farragut (of “Damn the Torpedos” fame). Admiral Porter first served as a midshipman at age ten under his father. He would serve in the Navy for over sixty years.

Admiral David Dixon Porter

-Photograph by Mathew Brady, Library of Congress Collection

Porter sketched the original figures of Grief and History as early as 1865, then raised money from private sources for its construction. Porter was likely inspired by his father, who undertook a similar project. Commodore Porter commissioned a statue dedicated to the lives of six naval heroes who died fighting the Barbary Pirates in the early 19th century. At one time this statue was displayed near the US Capitol; it was ultimately moved to the US Naval Academy at Annapolis in 1860.

For his monument, Admiral Porter worked with Franklin Simmons, an accomplished sculptor known for his work in sculpting political and historical figures. Simmons carved the statues at his studio in Rome, working with another team of Italian sculptors to carve the monument’s shaft. He consulted frequently with Admiral Porter on including additional figures and embellishments.

After its unveiling, an art critic remarked, “Porter knows more about the high seas than high art.”

While that may well have been true, Porter’s conglomeration of figures and mixed symbology seems quite appropriate for a monument to the U.S. Navy during the Civil War.

Close-up of the Statue of Mars. Note the erosion on the fingers of right hand where he grips his sword, and on nose.

In April of 1861, the Navy had but 42 commissioned ships. It needed to expand quickly and it required many new and different types of vessels for the missions it now faced. Specialized ships were necessary for enforcing President Lincoln’s blockade of Southern ports, defeating the Confederate Navy in open waters, supporting US Army ground operations and patrolling interior rivers. This was also a transitional period as wooden sailing ships gave way to ironclads powered by steam.

The Navy set about a massive program of refitting current naval vessels, building new ones and acquiring civilian ships, which were converted for military use. By war’s end, the Navy had over over 600 vessels, some very distinct in design and purpose.

During the Civil War, the US Navy also rewrote doctrines focusing on flotilla operations rather than single ship actions, adopted new combat tactics, and revised its command structure.

Admiral Porter was on the forefront of some of these developments. He commanded a flotilla of ships in the Union capture of New Orleans. He transported Ulysses S. Grant’s army down the Mississippi River prior to the assault on Vicksburg. He also commanded naval forces in the attack on Fort Fisher, North Carolina. After a two-day long bombardment of the fort, Porter contributed a force of sailors and Marines to join US Army soldiers on a multi-pronged ground attack.

The Bombardment and Capture of Fort Fisher, N.C. Jany. 15th, 1865. [Published by Currier & Ives, between 1865 and 1872] Library of Congress Collection

While historians devote more attention to land campaigns and the Army’s epic battles, the Navy made significant contributions to the Union victory in the Civil War. During those years, 4,523 sailors lost their lives. The Marine Corps played their role as well, participating in some major land battles, enforcing blockades and conducting patrols along the rivers. During the Civil War, 148 Marines were killed in combat.

After his Civil War service, Porter served as the Superintendent of the US Naval Academy where he implemented a number of reforms to better prepare midshipmen to become naval officers. He originally intended the monument to be placed at Annapolis as was his father’s. However, the Secretary of the Navy at the time disagreed.

Congress though did approve of the statue being placed near the Capitol. Funds were appropriated for the construction of the monument’s platform and a basin for the fountain, which were made from Maine blue granite.

The monument was shipped in pieces to Washington in 1876. The next year, the monument was assembled and installed at its current site. The last statue of Peace was added in 1878. A formal dedication ceremony was delayed until the statue was completed. Dolphins were also to be incorporated as were bronze lamps, but these were never added and no formal dedication was ever held.

The Statue of Peace facing the US Capitol.

The statue was built of Italian Carrara marble, which unfortunately has not stood up to the weather or the pollution in Washington, DC. Erosion of the faces on different figures is clearly evident and various features have broken off. For example, the young Neptune is missing his trident.

Additionally, protestors have repeatedly climbed the Peace Monument during demonstrations on the Mall, further damaging the statues. A major restoration effort was made in 1991, where the marble was carefully cleaned, strengthened and missing pieces replaced. Similar work was conducted in 1999 and 2010.

Close up of the Statues of Grief and History. Note the erosion on History’s face and the missing pen from History’s right hand.

It is easy to be dismissive of the Peace Monument as something antiquated–or not related to peace at all–since it memorializes war dead. Indeed, the monument may not work as “high art”. But the monument’s story is compelling and offers some rich analogies to peace worth considering.

Like this monument’s creation, peace may take a long time. Peace might look different from what you expected. Peace may never be complete. Peace is fragile and needs constant tending. Peace may not be heralded with a formal ceremony, yet it exists nonetheless. Peace may flabbergast some, but it can endure.

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Route Recon

The Navy Monument or Peace Monument is located within a traffic circle at the intersection of Pennsylvania Avenue and First Street, NW, to the northwest of the US Capitol building. The best way to get to the monument (and the Capitol) is by taking Metro.

Three Metro stops are within walking distance of the memorial and the Capitol:

Union Station – Located at First Street, NW, and Massachusetts Avenue.
Capitol South – Located at First Street between C and D Streets, SE.
Federal Center, SW – Located at the southwest corner of Third and D Streets, SW.

Additional information on riding Metro, is available at the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority.

The DC Circulator, a public bus system with routes through Washington’s downtown area includes stops near the Memorial. Find more information about Circulator busses at www.dccirculator.com.

There is very little public parking available near the Capitol. The nearest public parking facility is at Union Station, to the north of the Capitol. Very limited metered street parking is found along the Mall to the west of the Capitol.